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Table 1 Effect of different concentrations of Put, CQDs, and Put-CQD NPs on leaf fresh (FW) and dry (DW) weights, Na+ and K+ concentrations and ratio of Vitis vinifera cv. ‘Sultana’ under salinity stress (CQDs, carbon quantum dots; Put, putrescine, Put-CQD NPs, carbon quantum dots functionalized by putrescine nanoparticles). Different letters indicate significant differences based on Duncan’s post-hoc analysis at P ≤ 0.05

From: Putrescine-functionalized carbon quantum dot (put-CQD) nanoparticles effectively prime grapevine (Vitis vinifera cv. ‘Sultana’) against salt stress

Treatments

Leaf FW

(g)

Leaf DW

(g)

Na+

(mM kg− 1)

K+

(mM kg− 1)

Na+/K+

NaCl (0 mM) + No Treatment

83.61 ± 0.21de

7.15 ± 0.03e

0.212 ± 0.019ef

5.64 ± 0.91bc

0.037 ± 0.003f

NaCl (0 mM) + Put 5 mg L− 1

85.23 ± 0.08d

8.51 ± 0.01d

0.185 ± 0.014g

5.72 ± 0.61bc

0.032 ± 0.009fg

NaCl (0 mM) + Put 10 mg L− 1

87.54 ± 0.15c

8.92 ± 0.08cd

0.173 ± 0.013gh

5.87 ± 0.83b

0.029 ± 0.005g

NaCl (0 mM) + CQDs 5 mg L− 1

81.39 ± 0.41f

9.55 ± 0.07c

0.202 ± 0.017f

4.96 ± 0.43c

0.048 ± 0.007e

NaCl (0 mM) + CQDs 10 mg L− 1

85.08 ± 0.38dd

10.06 ± 0.09bc

0.191 ± 0.011fg

5.51 ± 0.67bc

0.034 ± 0.004fg

NaCl (0 mM) + Put-CQD NPs 5 mg L− 1

89.87 ± 0.29b

10.15 ± 0.05b

0.171 ± 0.008gh

6.16 ± 0.89ab

0.027 ± 0.009g

NaCl (0 mM) + Put-CQD NPs 10 mg L− 1

92.09 ± 0.61a

11.01 ± 0.03a

0.163 ± 0.016h

7.08 ± 0.69a

0.023 ± 0.004h

NaCl (100 mM) + No Treatment

65.36 ± 0.2ij

4.01 ± 0.04i

0.461 ± 0.016a

2.58 ± 0.28f

0.178 ± 0.006a

NaCl (100 mM) + Put 5 mg L− 1

65.05 ± 0.19j

4.85 ± 0.03h

0.355 ± 0.019b

3.12 ± 0.81e

0.113 ± 0.008b

NaCl (100 mM) + Put 10 mg L− 1

68. 23 ± 0.08ij

5.17 ± 0.09g

0.258 ± 0.006de

3.89 ± 0.97de

0.066 ± 0.005d

NaCl (100 mM) + CQDs 5 mg L− 1

71.02 ± 0.19i

5.82 ± 0.02fg

0.321 ± 0.017bc

2.74 ± 0.61ef

0.117 ± 0.003b

NaCl (100 mM) + CQDs 10 mg L− 1

74.91 ± 0.27h

6.07 ± 0.06f

0.309 ± 0.014c

2.98 ± 0.81ef

0.103 ± 0.007c

NaCl (100 mM) + Put-CQD NPs 5 mg L− 1

79.15 ± 0.43g

7.88 ± 0.06de

0.284 ± 0.007d

4.13 ± 0.65d

0.068 ± 0.008d

NaCl (100 mM) + Put-CQD NPs 10 mg L− 1

82.34 ± 0.31e

7.97 ± 0.04de

0.229 ± 0.009e

3.93 ± 0.75de

0.058 ± 0.004de